Systemic oppression, from slavery to mass Black incarceration, has led Black women to value self-reliance, said Dr Ashlee Davis, supervising psychologist at Fordham University’s counseling center and author of an article titled, "Traditional Femininity Versus Strong Black Women Ideologies and Stress Among Black Women." During slavery and its aftermath, “African American women had to take on roles reflective of both traditionally feminine and traditionally masculine norms – having to be both the father and the mother,” said Davis.